Fathoms Below

Vocals: (Ship's Chorus)Running time: 1:41
I'll tell you a tale of the bottomless blueAnd it's hey to the starboard, heave-hoLook out, lad, a mermaid be waiting for youIn mysterious fathoms below
Fathoms below, belowFrom whence wayward westerlies blowWhere Triton is king and his merpeople singIn mysterious fathoms belowHeave-ho, heave-ho
Heave-ho, heave-ho, heave-hoIn mysterious fathoms below

Daughters of Triton

Vocals: (Daughters of Triton)Running time: 0:40
Ah, we are the daughters of TritonGreat father who loves us and named us wellAquata, Andrina, Arista, Atina, Adella, AllanaAnd then there is the youngest in her musical debutOur seventh little sister, we're presenting her to youTo sing a song Sebastian wroteHer voice is like a bellShe's our sister, Ari--

Part of Your World

Vocals: Jodi Benson (Ariel)Running time: 3:15
[Maybe he's right][Maybe there is something the matter with me][I just don't see how a world][That makes such wonderful things][Could be bad]
Look at this stuff, isn't it neat?Wouldn't you think my collection's complete?Wouldn't you think I'm the girlThe girl who has everything?
Look at this trove, treasures untoldHow many wonders can one cavern hold?Looking around here, you'd thinkSure, she's got everything
I've got gadgets and gizmos a-plentyI've got who's-its and what's-its galoreYou want thing-a-mabobs?I've got twentyBut who cares? No big deal. I want more
I wanna be where the people areI wanna see, wanna see 'em dancin'walkin' around on thoseWhaddya call 'em? Oh, feet
Flippin' your fins, you don't get too farLegs are required for jumpin', dancin'Strollin' along down theWhat's that word again? StreetUp where they walkUp where they runUp where they stay all day in the sunWanderin' free, wish I could bePart of that world
What would I give if I could liveOutta these waters?What would I pay to spend a dayWarm on the sand?
Betcha on land they understandBet they don't reprimand their daughtersBright young women, sick of swimmin'Ready to stand
And ready to know what the people knowAsk 'em my questions and get some answersWhat's a fire, and why does itWhat's the word? Burn
When's it my turn?Wouldn't I love?Love to explore that shore up aboveOut of the sea, wish I could bePart of that world

Under the Sea

Vocals: Samuel E. Wright (Sebastian)Running time: 3:15
[Ariel, listen to me][The human world, it's a mess][Life under the sea][Is better than anything they got up there]
The seaweed is always greenerIn somebody else's lakeYou dream about going up thereBut that is a big mistake
Just look at the world around youRight here on the ocean floorSuch wonderful things surround youWhat more is you lookin' for?
Under the sea, under the seaDarlin' it's better down where it's wetterTake it from me.Up on the shore they work all dayOut in the sun they slave awayWhile we devoting full time to floatingUnder the sea
Down here all the fish is happyAs off through the waves they rollThe fish on the land ain't happyThey sad 'cause they in the bowl
But fish in the bowl is luckyThey in for a worser fateOne day when the boss get hungryGuess who's gon'be on the plate
Under the sea, under the seaNobody beat us, fry usAnd eat us in fricasseeWe what the land folks loves to cookUnder the sea we off the hookWe got no troubles, like is the bubbles
Under the sea, under the seaUnder the sea, under the seaSince life is sweet hereWe got the beat here naturallyEven the sturgeon and the rayThey get the urge 'n' start to playWe got the spirit, you got to hear itUnder the sea
The newt play the fluteThe carp play the harpThe plaice play the bassAnd they soundin' sharpThe bass play the brassThe chub play the tubThe fluke is the duke of soulThe ray he can playThe lings on the stringsThe trout rockin' outThe blackfish, she singsThe smelt and the spratThey know where it's atAnd oh, that blowfish blow
Under the sea, under the seaUnder the sea, under the seaWhen the sardine begin the beguineIt's music to meWhat do they got, a lot of sandWe got a hot crustaceuan band
Each little clam hereKnow how to jam hereUnder the seaEach little slug hereCutting a rug hereUnder the sea
Each little snail hereKnow how to wail hereThat's why it's hotterUnder the waterYa, we in luck hereDown in the muck hereUnder the sea
Part of Your World (Reprise)
Vocals: Jodi Benson (Ariel)Running time: 2:18
What would I give to live where you are?What would I pay to stay here beside you?What would I do to see you smiling at me?
Where would we walk?Where would we run?If we could stay all day in the sunJust you and me, and I could bePart of your world
I don't know when, I don't know howBut I know something's starting right nowWatch and you'll see, someday I'll bePart of your world

Poor Unfortunate Souls

Vocals: Pat Carroll (Ursula)Running time: 4:51
[The only way to get what you want][Is to become a human yourself]
[Can you do that?]
[My dear sweet child][That's what I do][It's what I live for][To help unfortunate merfolk, like yourself][Poor souls with no one else to turn to]
I admit that in the past I've been a nastyThey weren't kidding when they called meWell, a witch
But you'll find that nowadaysI've mended all my waysRepented, seen the lightAnd made a switch
And I fortunately know a little magicIt's a talent that I always have possesedAnd here lately, please don't laughI use it on behalfOf the miserable, lonely, and depressed-- Pathetic!
Poor unfortunate souls, in pain, in needThis one longing to be thinnerThat want wants to get the girlAnd do I help them?Yes, indeed!
Those poor unfortunate soulsSo sad, so trueThey come flocking to my cauldronCrying spells, Ursula, please!And I help them, yes I do
Now it's happened once or twiceSomeone couldn't pay the priceAnd I'm afraid I had to rake 'em'Cross the coals
Yes, I've had the odd complaintBut on the whole I've been a saintTo those poor unfortunate souls
[Have we got a deal?]
[If I become human][I'll never be with my father or sisters again]
[But you'll have your man][Life's full of tough choices, inn'nt it?][Oh, and there is one more thing][We haven't discussed the subject of payment]
[But I don't have any..]
[I'm not asking much, just a token][Really, a trifle][What I want from you is, your voice]
[But without my voice, how can I..]
[You'll have your looks][Your pretty face][And don't underestimate the importance of][Body language, Ha!]
The men up there don't like a lot of blabberThey thing a girl who gossips is a boreYes, on land it's much preferredFor ladies not to say a wordAnd after all, dearWhat is idle prattle for?
[Come on]They're not all that impressed with conversationTrue gentlemen avoid it when they canBut they dote and swoon and fawnOn a lady who's withdrawnIt's she who holds her tongueWho gets her man
Come on, you poor unfortunate soulGo ahead, make your choiceI'm a very busy woman and I haven't got all dayIt won't cost much, just your voice
You poor unfortunate soulIt's sad, but trueIf you want to cross a bridge, my sweetYou've got to pay the tollTake a gulp and take a breathAnd go ahead and sign the scrollFlotsam, Jetsam, now I've got her, boysThe boss is on a rollThis poor unfortunate soul
Beluga, sevruga, come windsOf the Caspian SeaLarynxes, glacydis, ad maxLaryngitis la voce to me
[Now sing. Keep singing!]

Les Poissons

Vocals: René Auberjonois (Louie)Running time: 1:36
Les poissons, les poissonsHow I love les poissonsLove to chop and to serve little fish
First I cut off their headsThen I pull out their bonesAh, mais oui, ca c'esttoujours delish
Les poissons, les poissonsHee-hee-hee, haw-haw-hawWith the cleaver I hack them in two
I pull out what's insideAnd I serve it up friedGod, I love little fishes, don't you?
Here's something for tempting the palatePrepared in the classic techniqueFirst you pound the fish flatWith a mallet
Then you slash through the skinGive the belly a sliceThen you rub some salt in'Cause that makes it taste nice
[Zut alors, I have missed one!]
Sacre bleu! What is this?How on earth could I missSuch a sweet little suculent crab
Quel domage. What a lossHere we go in the sauceNow some flour, I think just a dab
Now I stuff you with breadIt don't hurt 'cause you're deadAnd you're certainly lucky you are
'Cause it's gonna be hotIn my big silver potTootle-loo, mon poison, au revoir!

Kiss the Girl

Vocals: Samuel E. Wright (Sebastian)Running time: 2:43
[Percussion, strings, winds, words]
There you see herSitting there across the wayShe don't got a lot to sayBut there's something about her
And you don't know whyBut you're dying to tryYou wanna kiss the girl
Yes, you want herLook at her, you know you doPossible she wants you toThere is one way to ask her
It don't take a wordNot a single wordGo on and kiss the girl
[Sing with me now]
Sha la la la la la, my oh myLook like the boy too shyAin't gonna kiss the girl
Sha la la la la la, ain't that sadAin't it a shame, too badHe gonna miss the girl
Now's your momentFloating in a blue lagoonBoy, you'd better do it soonNo time will be better
She don't say a wordAnd she won't say a wordUntil you kiss the girl
Sha la la la la la, don't be scaredYou got the mood preparedGo on and kiss the girl
Sha la la la la la, don't stop nowDon't try to hide itHow you wanna kiss the girl
Sha la la la la la, float alongAnd listen to the songThe song say kiss the girl
Sha la la la la la, the music playDo what the music sayYou gotta kiss the girl
You've gotta kiss the girlYou wanna kiss the girlYou've gotta kiss the girlGo on and kiss the girl

Happy Ending

Vocals: (Disney Chorus)Running time: 3:11
Now we can walkNow we can runNow we can stayAll day in the sunJust you and meAnd I can bePart of your world

Fathoms Below (Deleted Lyrics)

Heave-ho, heave-hoI'll tell you a tale of the bottomless blueAnd it's hey to the starboard, heave-hoBrave sailor beware, for a big 'un's a-brewin'Mysterious fathoms below
Heave-ho, heave-hoI'll sing you a song of the king of the seaAnd it's hey to the starboard, heave-hoThe ruler of all of the ocean is heIn mysterious fathoms below
Fathoms below, belowFrom whence wayward westerlies blowWhere Triton is king and his merpeople singIn mysterious fathoms below
Heave-ho, heave-hoI'll tell you a tale of the bottomless blueAnd it's hey to the starboard, heave-hoLook out, lad, a mermaid be waiting for youIn mysterious fathoms below
The king of the ocean is angrySo trouble's a-brewin' out thereI'm tellin' you, lad, then King Triton is madHow the waves'll buck, rock to and fro
Hold on, good luck, as down you goFor Triton is king of the bottomless blueAnd it's hey to the starboard, heave-hoBeware of the magic his merpeople doIn mysterious fathoms belowHeave-ho, heave-ho

Part of Your World (Reprise) (Deleted Lyrics)

What would I give to live where you are?What would I pay to stay here beside you?What would I do to see you smiling at me?
Now there's a dreamNow there's a goalNow there's a need I'll never controlI won't get freeTill I can bePart of your world
What would I give if I could live outta these waters?What would I pay to spend a day holding your hand?I'd give my lifeI'd sell my soul'Cause I can feel I'll never be wholeBut I can seeI'll never bePart of your world

Poor Unfortunate Souls (Deleted Lyrics)

Come on, I know you need a little magicAnd magic is my specialty du jourDon't just stand there looking sickWould I kid you? Play a trick?Like I told you, I don't do that anymore
So I think you ought to take my little bargainYes, I think you ought to make my little dealSure, it's hard to leave your lifeBut you could be a prince's wifeWhy don't you let me take that dream and make it real?
Come on, you poor unfortunate soulPoor child! Poor fish!Aren't you glad you brought your problemTo a lady you can trust?Won't you let me grant your wish?
You poor unfortunate soulPoor sweet! Poor dear!Aren't you lucky that I'm readyWith a potion and a plan?Aren't you glad you came and askedIf I could help you? And I canWhen a mermaid comes to UrsulaShe always gets her manYou poor unfortunate soul

bangunan tanah liat

Masjid Besar Djenné
Dari Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu, ensiklopedia bebas.
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Tiga Menara Masjid Besar yang dikenali ramai mengadap pasar pusat Djenné.
Masjid Besar Djenné adalah bangunan bata tanah liat di dunia dan di anggap oleh ramai jurubina sebagai gaya seni bina Sudano-Sahelian, walaupun dengan pengaruh Islam yang jelas. Masjid ini terletak di bandar Djenné, Mali di dataran banjir sungai Bani. Masjid pertama ditapak ini dibina pada abad ke-13, tetapi struktur kini bertarikh semenjak 1907. Selain merupakan pusat masyarakat Djenné, ia adalah salah satu mercu tanda yang paling terkenal di Afrika. Bersama dengan keseluruhan bandar Djenné ia telah diwartakan sebagai Tapak Warisan Dunia (World Heritage Site) oleh Organisasi Kebudayaan, Sains, dan Pendidikan Bangsa-bangsa Bersatu (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization - UNESCO) pada 1988.
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[Sunting] Sejarah
Masjid Besar Djenné berbeza dari masjid-masjid Afrika Barat dari mana tapaknya bukanlah dianggap suci sebelum pembinaannya — tapak ini sebelumnya menempatkan istana. Masjid lain biasanya dibina di tapak yang sama menggantikan pusaran batu atau bata tanah liat berbentuk kon yang melambangkan penyembahan nenek moyang. Sesetengah penyelidik seni bina Islam seperti Labelle Prussin, percaya bahawa pusaran berbentuk kon ini dimasukkan kedalam reka bentuk masjid dikeseluruhan Mali, dan menunjukkan Masjid Besar Djenné sebagai contoh paling jelas.


Amadou Lobbo memerintahkan Masjid Besar Djenné asal dirobohkan pada 1834. Sungguhpun begitu, runtuhannya itu masih mengkagumkan, sebagaimana yang dipaparkan oleh poskad Perancis pada awal abad ke 20 ini.
Tapak ini telah menjadi masjid semenjak bangunan asal dibina oleh Koi Kunboro pada 1240, sebelum Djenné muncul sebagai bandar utama bagi empayar Mali dan kemudiannya ampayar Songhai. Amadou Lobbo, yang menakluk Djenné semasa Perang Tukulor, memerintahkan masjid asal dirobohkan pada 1834. Dia menganggap struktur asal yang telah diubahsuai dari istana sebagai terlalu mewah. Bahagian yang tinggal dari bangunan asal adalah kurungan yang mengandungi kubur pemimpin tempatan. Binaan semula struktur asal telah disiapkan pada 1896 tetapi kemudiannya telah dirobohkan bagi membina struktur yang ada sehingga kini.
Pembinaan Masjid Besar Djenné yang ada kini bermula pada 1906 dan kemungkinannya telah disiapkan pada 1907 atau 1909. Pembinaan masjid telah diselia dan dikendali oleh ketua kumpulan tukang batu Djenné, Ismaila Traoré. Pada masa itu, Djenné merupakan sebahagian dari koloni Afrika Barat Perancis dan Perancis mungkin telah memberikan sokongan politik dan ekonomi bagi pembinaan masjid Djenné dan madrasah yang berhampiran.
Wayar eletrik dan paip dalaman telah dipasang pada kebanyakan masjid di Mali. Dalam sesetengah kes, permukaan asal masjid telah dipasang jubin, memusnahkan penampilan sejarah dan dalam sesetengah kes melemahkan keutuhan struktur asal bangunan. Sungguhpun Masjid Besar Djenné mempunyai sistem pembesar suara, penduduk Djenné telah menentang permodenan bagi mengekalkan keutuhan sejarah bangunan. Ramai pakar pengekal sejarah telah memuji usaha pengekalan masyarakat, dan minat dalam aspek sejarah bangunan ini semakin tumbuh pada 1990-an.
Masjid Besar Djenné ditutup bagi bukan-Muslim selepas penggambaran fesyen dibahagian atap dan dalam dewan sembahyang menyingung atau dianggap memungkiri perjanjian sebelumnya dengan ketua tempatan.
[Sunting] Rekabentuk


Cabang pokok palma terbenam di dalam dinding Masjid Besar mengurangkan tekanan dari perbezaan cuaca dan bertindak sebagai scaffolding bagi pembaik-pulih tahunan.
Dinding Masjid Besar Djenné dibuat daripada bata tanah liat yang dijemur yang dikenali sebagai ferey, motar yang diperbuat daripada tanah liat, dan diselitupi dengan plaster tanah liat memberikan rupa licin seperti diukir. Dindingnya setebal 41 cm (16 in.) dan 61 cm (24 inci.). Ketebalannya bergantung kepada ketinggian dinding: bahagian tinggi dibina lebih tebal kerana asasnya perlu cukup lebar bagi menyokong berat. Ikatan dahan pokok palma dimasukkan kedalam binaan bagi mengurangkan rekahan akibat perubahan mengejut dalam kelembapan dan suhu dan sebagai tangga yang tersedia bagi pembaik-pulih tahunan. Dinding tanah liat ini melindungi bangunan dari haba semasa siang dan pada waktu malam mempunyai cukup haba yang diserap bagi mengekalkan kepanasan dalam masjid sepanjang malam. Longkang, yang diperbuat daripada paip seramik, menjulur dari garis atap dan mengarah air keluar jauh dari atap dari mengenai dinding. Dewan sembahyang atau quibla Masjid Besar Djenné mengadap barat kearah Mekkah dan mengarah kearah pasar bandar Djenné. Kiblat masjid ditanda oleh tiga menara besar segi empat, seperti kotak, yang menjulur dari dinding utama dan mempunyai lapan belas penyokong (buttress). Setiap menara mempunyai tangga berputar kearah atap, dan pada setiap menara terdapat putaran berbentuk kon yang mempunyai telur burung unta pada kemuncaknya.
Sebahagian masjid ini ditutupi oleh atap dan sebahagian lagi dewan sembahyang terbuka atau laman. Atap masjid disokong oleh sembilan puluh tiang yang merentasi bahagian dalam dewan sembahyang. Liang di atap ditutup oleh penutup seramik, yang apabila dialih membenarkan udara panas keluar dari masjid, dengan itu mengangian bahagian dalam. Dewan sembahyang kedua dikepung dilaman belakang masjid yang beratap dan dikelilingi dinding pada bahagian utara, selatan, dan barat dan oleh dinding masjid pada bahagian timur. Laluan dalam tembol mengelilingi bahagian dalam laman. Dinding masjid yang mengadap laman mempunyai bukaan berkubah, setinggi 15 m (45 kaki), yang membenarkan keluar masuk dari masjid.
Banjir dan kerosakan oleh air merupakan kebimbangan utama Traoré ketika merancang pembinaan masjid ini. Banjir tahunan oleh sungai Bani menyebabkan Djenné menjadi pulau, dan banjir yang luar biasa tinggi boleh menenggelamkan sebahagian bandar ini. Masjid Besar dibina diatas pelantar tinggi dengan luas permukaan 5,625 m² (62,500 ft²), yang sehingga kini melindungi masjid dari banjir yang paling teruk sekalipun.
[Sunting] Kepentingan Kebudayaan


Pintu masuk utama di dinding selatan.
Keseluruhan masyarakat Djenné mengambil peranan aktif dalam penjagaan masjid melalui perayaan tahunan yang unik. Ini termasuk muzik dan makanan, tetapi matlamat utama adalah membaiki kerosakan yang dialami masjid sepanjang tahun lalu (kebanyakannya oleh hakisan akibat hujan tahunan dan rekahan akibat perbezaan suhu dan kelembapan). Pada hari-hari sebelum perayaan, plaster disediakan dalam longkang. Ia memerlukan beberapa hari untuk siap tetapi perlu diuli beberapa kali, tugas yang dilakukan oleh kanak-kanak yang bermain di dalamnya dengan itu mengaul kandungannya. Kaum lelaki memanjat pada built-in scaffolding dan tangga yang diperbuat dari kayu palma dan menyalut plaster pada permukaan masjid.
Sekumpulan lelaki lain membawa plaster dari kolah ke pekerja yang bekerja di bahagian atas masjid. Perlumbaan diadakan bagi melihat siapa yang menjadi orang pertama menghantar plaster ke masjid. Wanita dan anak gadis membawa air ke kubang sebelum perayaan dan kepada pekerja semasa perayaan tersebut. Ahli kepada kumpulan tukang batu Djenné mengarah kerja, sementara ahli masyarakat berumur, yang telahpun menyertai perayaan sedemikian banyak kali, duduk ditempat kehormat di dataran pasar memerhati pembinaan tersebut.
Masjid asal menjadi tumpuan salah satu pusat pendidikan Islam yang penting di Afrika pada Zaman Pertengahan. Beribu-ribu pelajar datang untuk mengkaji Al-Quran di madrasah Djenné. Kawasan bersejarah Djenné termasuk Masjid Besar, diistiharkan sebagai Warisan Dunia oleh UNESCO pada tahun 1988. Walaupun terdapat banyak masjid lain yang lebih tua berbanding binaan sekarang, Masjid Besar kekal sebagai simbol utama bagi bandar Djenné dan negara Mali.

vegetables

Vegetable
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Farmer's market showing vegetables for sale
Vegetable is a culinary term which generally refers to an edible part of a plant. The definition is traditional rather than scientific and is somewhat arbitrary and subjective. All parts of herbaceous plants eaten as food by humans, whole or in part, are normally considered vegetables. Mushrooms, though belonging to the biological kingdom fungi, are also commonly considered vegetables. In general, vegetables are thought of as being savory, and not sweet, although there are many exceptions. Nuts, grains, herbs, spices and culinary fruits (see below) are normally not considered vegetables.
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[edit] Fruit, vegetable


Venn diagram representing the relationship between (botanical) fruits and vegetables. Botanical fruits that are not vegetables are culinary fruits.
Since “vegetable” is not a botanical term, there is no contradiction in referring to a plant part as a fruit while also being considered a vegetable (see diagram). Given this general rule of thumb, vegetables can also include leaves (lettuce), stems (asparagus), roots (carrots), flowers (broccoli), bulbs (garlic), seeds (peas and beans) and botanical fruits such as cucumbers, squash, pumpkins, and capsicums (bell peppers). Botanically, fruits are reproductive organs (ripened ovaries containing one or many seeds), while vegetables are vegetative organs which sustain the plant.
The question "is it a fruit, or is it a vegetable?" has even found its way into the United States Supreme Court, which ruled unanimously in Nix v. Hedden, 1893, that a tomato is a vegetable for the purposes of 1883 Tariff Act, although botanically, a tomato is a fruit.
The distinction between fruits and vegetables is not just semantic. In Judaism, where religious Jewish people recite a blessing before eating food, and each food group has a separate blessing, defining a food as a fruit or vegetable will affect which blessing is chosen.
Commercial production of vegetables is a branch of horticulture called olericulture...
Etymology
Vegetable is also used as a literary term for any plant: vegetable matter, vegetable kingdom.[1] It comes from Latin vegetabilis (animated) and from vegetare (enliven), which is derived from vegetus (active), in reference to the process of a plant growing. This in turn derives from the Proto-Indo-European base *weg- or *wog-, which is also the source of the English wake, meaning "not sleep". The word vegetable was first recorded in print in English in the 14th century. The meaning of "plant grown for food" was not established until the 18th century. [2]
In the diet
Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutrient content of different types varies considerably. With the exception of pulses, vegetables provide little protein and fat.[3][4] Vegetables contain water soluble vitamins like vitamin B and vitamin C, fat-soluble vitamins including vitamin A and vitamin D, and also contain carbohydrates and minerals and fiber. Among the nutrients vegetables may have include antioxidants, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anticarcinogenic nutrients. Also, decaying or rotting vegetables (plant matter in general) may have reduced nutrients, but are often full of probiotic bacteria.
Color


Vegetables and fruit for sale on a street in Guntur, India
The green color of leafy vegetables is due to the presence of the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is affected by pH and changes to olive green in acid conditions, and bright green in alkaline conditions. Some of the acids are released in steam during cooking, particularly if cooked without a cover.
The yellow/orange colors of fruits and vegetables are due to the presence of carotenoids, which are also affected by normal cooking processes or changes in pH.
The red/blue coloring of some fruits and vegetables (e.g. blackberries and red cabbage) are due to anthocyanins, which are sensitive to changes in pH. When pH is neutral, the pigments are purple, when acidic, red, and when alkaline, blue. These pigments are very water soluble.
Storage
Many root and non-root vegetables that grow underground can be stored through winter in a root cellar or other similarly cool, dark and dry place to prevent mold, greening and sprouting. Care should be taken in understanding the properties and vulnerabilities of the particular roots to be stored. These vegetables can last through to early spring and be nearly as nutritious as when fresh.[citation needed]
During storage, leafy vegetables lose moisture and vitamin C degrades rapidly. They should be stored for as short a time as possible in a cool place, in a container or plastic bag.

manga

Manga
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Manga (漫画, Manga?) listen (help·info) (pl. manga) is the Japanese word for comics and print cartoons. The drawers of these comics are called mangaka. Outside of Japan, it refers specifically to comics originally published in Japan. Native Japanese are often unaware of the use of manga to refer to Japanese comics specifically. As of 2007, manga represents a multi-billion dollar global market.[1] Manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo-e and foreign styles of drawing, and took its current form shortly after World War II. Recently, Manga are read by almost all Japanese social classes and age groups. Themes include sports, romance, historical drama, comedy, soap operas, fantasy, mystery and horror.
It comes mainly in black and white, except for the covers and sometimes the first few pages; in some Animanga (anime printed in manga style) all the pages are colored. They usually originate in Japan, China, or other East Asian countries.
Popular manga are often adapted into anime (Japanese for animation) once a market interest has been established. Adapted stories are often modified to appeal to a more mainstream market. Although not as common, original anime is sometimes adapted into manga.
There is a popular misconception in English speaking countries that the word "manga" refers to Japanese animation (anime). This is in part due to the name and logo of the Manga Entertainment distribution company, who have brought many anime productions to western audiences.
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[edit] Origins
Main article: History of manga
Manga, literally translated, means "whimsical pictures". The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Suzuki Kankei's "Mankaku zuihitsu" (1771) and Santo Kyoden's picturebook "Shiji no yukikai" (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's "Manga hyakujo" (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai manga containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai.[2] However, giga (literally "funny pictures"), especially chōjū jinbutsu giga (鳥獣人物戯画,, chōjū jinbutsu giga? literally "funny pictures of animals and humans"), drawn in the 12th century by various artists, contain many manga-like qualities such as emphasis on story and simple, artistic lines.


Japanese wood block illustration from 19th century
Modern manga developed from a mixture of woodblock printed books and pictures with foreign art movements. When the United States began trading with Japan, Japan entered a period of rapid modernization and globalization. Thus, they imported foreign artists to teach their students things such as line, form and color, which were never concentrated on in ukiyo-e as the idea behind the picture was normally considered more important[citation needed]. Manga in this period was known as Ponchi-e (Punch-picture) and, like its British counterpart Punch magazine, mainly depicted humor and political satire in a short, 1- or 4-picture format.


Rakuten Kitazawa's Tagosaku and Mokube's Sightseeing in Tokyo(1902)
During the late Meiji period to the period before WW II, notable mangaka include Rakuten Kitazawa and Ippei Okamoto. Rakuten Kitazawa trained under Frank A. Nankivell, an Australian artist, and joined Jiji Shimpo newspaper company after being invited by Yukichi Fukuzawa. After that, Rakuten published such famous comic strips as Tagosaku to Mokubē no Tōkyō-Kenbutsu (田吾作と杢兵衛の東京見物,, Tagosaku to Mokubē no Tōkyō-Kenbutsu? "Tagosaku and Mokube's Sightseeing in Tokyo") (1902) and Haikara Kidorō no Shippai (灰殻木戸郎の失敗,, Haikara Kidorō no Shippai? "The Failures of Kidoro Haikara") (1902). Rakuten's works were inspired by many American comic strips include Katzenjammer Kids, Yellow Kid and Opper's works. Ippei Okamoto is the founder of Nippon Mangakai, the first cartoonist's association in Japan. His manga manbun works, such as Hito no Isshō (人の一生,, Hito no Isshō? "A life of a man") (1921), had a major influence on contemporary mangaka and became prototypes of later fiction-based manga.[3]
[edit] Osamu Tezuka


Osamu Tezuka's manga show influence of American comics
Manga art first originated in Tokyo, Japan. Manga spread by the Showa Modan culture in around 1930. Manga in this era was made from low-priced paper and ink. It was sold not in bookstores, but in toy shops for children. The Imperial Japanese Army came to influence Manga strongly when the militarism of Japan strengthened in around 1940. (For instance, Norakuro is a popular poetic justice manga written by Suihō Tagawa in 1931.) When World War II ended, the United States culture was introduced into Japan again. Osamu Tezuka was influenced by Fleischer Studios and Walt Disney's styles, and developed the cartoon to Manga. The story and the tragedy were introduced by Tezuka Osamu. [4] He had a strong influence on a lot of Mangaka. In around 1950, many young Mangaka came to the apartment Tokiwa-sō where Tezuka lived. The residents included Ishinomori Shōtarō, Akatsuka Fujio, and Fujiko Fujio.
Tezuka introduced film-like storytelling and characters in comic format in which each short film-like episode is part of a larger story arc. The only text in Tezuka's comics was the characters' dialogue and this lent the comics a cinematic quality. Tezuka also adopted Disney-like facial features where a character's eyes, mouth, eyebrows and nose are drawn in a very exaggerated manner to add more distinct characterization with fewer lines, which made his work popular. This somewhat revived the old ukiyo-e-like tradition where the picture is a projection of an idea rather than actual physical reality.[citation needed] Initially, his comic was published in a children's magazine. Soon, it became a specialized weekly or monthly comic magazine of its own, which is now the foundation of the Japanese comic industry.[citation needed] Tezuka adapted his comic to almost all film genres of the time; his manga series range from action adventure (e.g. Kimba the White Lion, also known as Jungle Emperor Leo) to serious drama (e.g. Black Jack) to science fiction (e.g. Astro Boy, Ambassador Magma), horror (e.g. Dororo, The Three-eyed One.) Though he is known in the West as a creator of the children's animation Astro Boy, Many of his comics had some very mature and sometimes dark undertones. Most of his comics' central characters had a tragic background. Some criticize Tezuka's extensive use of tragic dramatization in his stories.[citation needed] As the manga generation of children grew up, the market for comics expanded accordingly and manga soon became a major cultural force of Japan. Tezuka also contributed to the social acceptance of manga. His qualification as a medical doctor as well as the holder of Ph.D in medical science and his serious storylines were used to deflect criticism that manga was vulgar and undesirable for children.
[edit] Gekiga


A page from the Marmalade Boy manga, volume 1 (Japanese version)
Another important trend in manga was gekiga ("Dramatic Pictures"). Between the 1960s and the 1970s, there were two forms of comic serialization. One, the manga format, was based on the sales of anthology magazines which contained dozens of titles. The other, gekiga, was based on a rental format of an individual manga "book" of single title. Manga was based on weekly or biweekly magazine publications, so production was prompt, and the deadline was paramount. Consequently, most manga artists adopted Tezuka's style of drawing, where characters are drawn in a simpler but exaggerated manner, typified by the large round eyes regarded abroad as a defining feature of Japanese comics. In contrast, gekiga typically had more complex and mature story lines, with higher production value per page. For this reason, gekiga was considered to be artistically superior. However, gekiga's rental business model eventually died out in the 1970s, while manga artists significantly improved their graphic quality. Eventually, gekiga was absorbed into manga and now is used to describe a manga style which does not use cartoon-like drawing. Some examples of the gekiga-style manga are Kamui-den by Shirato Sanpei, Kyojin-no Hoshi by Kawasaki Noboru, Gorgo 13 by Saito Takao, and probably most famous abroad Akira by Ōtomo Katsuhiro.
However, gekiga did not only influence the art style of manga: after the 1970s, more mature-themed pictures and plot lines were used in manga. Many had significant depictions of violence and sexual activity, and were marketed at teenagers: unlike in Tezuka's time, children in the 1970s had more disposable income, so they could directly purchase manga without asking their parents to buy it for them. Thus, manga publishers did not need to justify their products to the parents. Moreover, the dominance of the serialized manga format on a weekly basis meant that manga was increasingly becoming "pulp fiction", with large amounts of violent content and some nudity (especially, although not exclusively, in manga aimed at boys). Representative titles of this genre were Harenchi Gakuen by Gō Nagai and Makoto-chan by Kazuo Umezu, both of which had copious amounts of gore, nudity, and vulgar (often scatological) jokes. Much like in the United States during the Comic book scare in the 40's and 50's, teachers and parents had objections to the content of manga, but unlike the U.S. no attempt was made to create an oversight board like the Comics Code Authority. Interestingly, manga magazines "for children" in the 1970s arguably had more vulgar themes (due to the fact that it was the only major publishing format available), but by the 1980s and 1990s, new magazines catering to teenagers and young adults had come into play.
[edit] Cultural importance


Strip of the yonkoma manga series OL Shinkaron. Common to Japan but rarely localized for other countries, yonkoma closely resemble Western comic strips.
Though roughly equivalent to the American comic book, manga holds more importance in Japanese culture than comics do in American culture. In economic terms, weekly sales of comics in Japan exceed the entire annual output of the American comic industry [citation needed]. Additionally, manga and comics in general are more widely consumed among the adult population of Japan than in America. [citation needed] Several major manga magazines which contain about a dozen episodes from different authors sell several million copies each per week. Manga is well respected both as an art form and as a form of popular literature, though it has not reached the acceptance level of historically higher art genres such as film or music. However, approval of Hayao Miyazaki's anime and other works of manga are gradually changing the perception of anime and manga, placing them closer to the status of "higher" arts (The film with the all-time highest box office gross in Japan is Spirited Away by Hayao Miyazaki, with 30.4 billion yen).
Like its American counterpart, some manga has been criticized for being violent or sexual. For example, a number of film adaptations of manga such as Fist of the North Star were rated Restricted or Mature in the United States. However, there have been no official inquiries or laws trying to limit what can be drawn in manga, except for vague decency laws applying to all published materials, stating that "overly indecent materials should not be sold." This freedom has allowed artists to draw manga for every age group and a wide selection of topics.
[edit] Manga format
Manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These manga magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages long. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued.
When a series has been running for a while, the stories are usually collected together and printed in dedicated book-sized volumes, called tankōbon. These are the equivalent of American comic's trade paperbacks. These volumes use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. Recently, "deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have gotten older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about one US dollar) each to compete with the used book market.
Manga are primarily classified by the age and gender of the target audience. In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores.
Japan also has manga cafés, or manga kissa (kissa is an abbreviation of kissaten). At a manga kissa, people drink coffee and read manga, and sometimes stay there overnight.


The reading direction in a traditional manga.
Traditionally, manga are written from top to bottom and right to left, as this is the traditional reading pattern of the Japanese written language. Some publishers of translated manga keep this format, but other publishers flip the pages horizontally, changing the reading direction to left to right, so as not to confuse foreign audiences or traditional comics consumers. This practice is known as "flipping". For the most part, the criticisms suggest that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM"). Another example includes the character Miroku from InuYasha, who has a black hole in his right hand: in the flipped and translated version, dialogue shows him having it in his right palm, but the drawings show it in his left hand. Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right, or more astute readers may notice that all characters in manga may seem to be left-handed. It should be noted, however, that oddities and disparities between art and dialogue can usually be rectified by editing and proof-reading. The most obvious example of this in manga reproduced for a western audience is to be found in Dark Horse's reproductions of Hiroaki Samura's Blade of the Immortal, where the original sound effects, written text and page layouts are retained from the source material, with individual panels flipped horizontally. It is likely this was done to prevent offense to western readers - as the main character in the book sports a large manji (buddhist swastika, 卍), and simply flipping the book's pages would have resulted in him seeming to sport the nazi emblem.
[edit] Dōjinshi
Some manga artists will produce extra, sometimes unrelated material, which are known as omake (lit. "bonus" or "extra"). They might also publish their unfinished drawings or sketches, known as oekaki (lit. "sketches").
Dōjinshi is produced by small amateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to small-press independently published comic books in the United States. Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with over 400,000 gathering in 3 days, is devoted to dōjinshi.
Unofficial fan-made comics are also called dōjinshi. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction.
[edit] Classification of Manga


Tohru Honda from Fruits Basket, is an example of the stereotypical moe style of manga characterized by such features as large, expressive eyes and a small, simple nose.
While 'manga' is defined as "a Japanese comic book or graphic novel",[5] some people contend that manga defines a style rather than a country of origin. This viewpoint can most predominantly be seen by the manga publisher Tokyopop, which markets original English-language manga.
"Manga is like hip-hop. It's a lifestyle. To say that you can't draw it because you don't have the DNA is just silly."—Stu Levy, Tokyopop CEO[1]
However, like any artistic medium, there is no true set style for manga. Manga can range from the realistic to super deformed. Therefore, when manga is referenced as a style, it generally is specifically referring to the moe style of manga common to the fantasy genre and the most familiar style of manga to foreign readers.
[edit] Types of manga


Not all manga is drawn in the large-eyed moe style. Shown here is Akira Hojo from the realistically drawn seinen manga Sanctuary.
With an immense market in Japan, manga encompasses a very diverse range of subjects and themes, satisfying many readers of different interests. Popular manga aimed at mainstream readers frequently involves sci-fi, action, fantasy and comedy. Notable manga series are based on corporate businessman (the Shima Kousaku and Salaryman Kintaro series), Chinese cuisine (Iron Wok Jan), criminal thriller (Monster) and military politics (The Silent Service). As a result, many genres apply equally well to anime (which very often includes adaptations of manga) and Japanese computer games (some of which are also adaptations of manga).
[edit] Genres
Kodomo children
Shōjo young and teenage girls
Shōnen young and teenage boys
Battling companion (not an official name)
Josei (or redikomi), mainly young women, but men too
Redisu, women
Seinen men
Alternative (See also: Garo)
Gekiga (dramatic pictures)
La nouvelle manga (Franco-Belgian/Japanese artistic movement)
Semi-alternative (popular publication individualistic style)
OEL manga (original English language manga)
Dōjinshi Fan-art or self-published manga
Magical girl (mahō shōjo)
Gag, humour
Jidaimono, historical
Robot/Mecha (giant robots)
Suiri, crime and murder
Moé, fetishism or love for characters as main subject
Shōjo-ai or Yuri, lesbian romance
Shōnen-ai or Yaoi, gay romance
Ecchi, erotic
Hentai, pornography
[edit] International influence
Main article: Manga outside Japan


Demo by Brian Wood (story) and Becky Cloonan (art) is an example of an American comic that is influenced by manga
Manga has long had an influence on international comics and animation the world over.
[edit] North America
The first Westerner to introduce the visual approach and concepts of manga into English language comics was Vernon Grant, who drew comics in 1969-1972 while he was living in Japan. At the time, he was absorbing numerous Japanese comics, including Kazuo Koike's 28-volume samurai epic Lone Wolf and Cub, which he wrote about in the Mainichi Daily News in 1972. From 1977 to 1988, Grant published his series, The Love Rangers about a racially mixed space crew spreading love thoughout the universe. In 1983, Frederik L. Schodt's Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics (Kodansha) profiled creators and detailed manga's background and history for American readers.
Following increasing interest during the 1990s, manga eventually grew into a large industry in America, tripling during 2002-05 to become a $180 million market by 2005.[1] Also as evidence of their pervasiveness, at least 40 syndicated newspaper have added manga strips to their funny pages.[1] Manga has also been noted for making female readers interested in comics. In a nation where the American comic book readership is largely dominated by males, females make up an unheard of 60% of all manga readership.[1]
[edit] Europe
In France there is a "Nouvelle Manga" movement started by Frédéric Boilet which seeks to combine mature sophisticated daily life manga with the artistic style of traditional Franco-Belgian comics. While the movement also involves Japanese artists, a handful of French cartoonists other than Boilet have decided to embrace its ideal. France is the biggest country after Japan where Manga are most sold, with 10 million books in 2005.
The manga style has influenced not only writers and artists, but musicians as well. Turkish rock band maNga [sic] has not only its name derived from the style; their videos and album cover feature manga-style animation and the members of the band have their own manga characters, drawn by award-winning artist Kaan Demirçelik. English metal band Versus Akira derives its name and certain stylistic qualities in the music and artwork from the famous Japanese anime film/manga Akira.
[edit] Influence
American artist and writer Frank Miller has been heavily influenced by manga and in particular by Koike's Lone Wolf and Cub. Miller was one of the first American comic artists to make use of decompression, a style prevalent in manga.
Other American artists such as Becky Cloonan (Demo, East Coast Rising), Ben Dunn (Ninja High School), Corey Lewis (Sharknife, PENG), Joe Madureira (Battle Chasers) and Canadian Bryan Lee O'Malley (Lost At Sea, Scott Pilgrim) are also influenced by the mainstream manga style and have received acclaim for their work outside of anime/manga fan circles. These artists have their roots in the anime/manga subculture of their particular regions (as well as the Internet and webcomics), but incorporate many other influences that make their work more palatable to non-manga readers.
American artist Paul Pope worked in Japan for Kodansha on the manga anthology Afternoon. Before he was fired (due to an editorial change at Kodansha) he was developing many ideas for the anthology that he would later publish in the U.S. as Heavy Liquid. As a result his work features a strong influence from manga without influences from international otaku culture.
In addition, there are many amateur artists who are influenced exclusively by the manga style.[citation needed] Many of these have their own small publishing houses, and some webcomics in this style have become very popular (see Megatokyo and "Sequence (manga)"). For the most part, these artists are not yet recognized outside of the anime and manga fan community.

Flower
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A Phalaenopsis flower


Rudbeckia fulgida
A flower, also known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms). The flower's structure contains the plant's reproductive organs, and its function is to produce seeds. After fertilization, portions of the flower develop into a fruit containing the seeds. For the higher plants, seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species are dispersed across the landscape. The grouping of flowers on a plant is called the inflorescence.
In addition to serving as the reproductive organs of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans, mainly to beautify their environment but also as a source of food.

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[edit] Function
The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male and female gametes in order to produce seeds. The process begins with pollination, is followed by fertilization, and continues with the formation and dispersal of the seed.
[edit] Morphology
Flowering plants are heterosporangiate, producing two types of reproductive spores. The pollen (male spores) and ovules (female spores) are produced in different organs, but the typical flower is a bisporangiate strobilus in that it contains both organs.
A flower is regarded as a modified stem with shortened internodes and bearing, at its nodes, structures that may be highly modified leaves.[1] In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or axis with an apical meristem that does not grow continuously (growth is determinate). Flowers maybe attached to the plant in a few ways, if the flower has no stem but forms in the axil of a leaf it is called sessile, when one flower is produced the stem holding the flower is called a peduncle, if the peduncle ends with groups of flowers - each stem that holds a flower is called a pedicel. The flowering stem forms a terminal end which is called the torus or receptacle. The parts of a flower are arranged in whorls on the torus. The four main parts or whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows:


Anatomy of a Sarracenia flower. The umbrella shaped style is unique to this genus, and will look different in most flowers
Calyx – the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species.
Corolla – the whorl of petals, which are usually thin, soft and colored to attract insects that help the process of pollination.
Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house) – one or two whorls of stamens, each a filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male gametes.
Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house) – one or more pistils. The female reproductive organ is the carpel: this contains an ovary with ovules (which contain female gametes). A pistil may consist of a number of carpels merged together, in which case there is only one pistil to each flower, or of a single individual carpel (the flower is then called apocarpous). The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carrying the reproductive material.
Although the floral structure described above is considered the "typical" structural plan, plant species show a wide variety of modifications from this plan. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species. For example, the two subclasses of flowering plants may be distinguished by the number of floral organs in each whorl: dicotyledons typically having 4 or 5 organs (or a multiple of 4 or 5) in each whorl and monocotyledons having three or some multiple of three. The number of carpels in a compound pistil may be only two, or otherwise not related to the above generalization for monocots and dicots.


This Crateva religiosa flower is perfect: it has both stamens (outer ring) and a pistil (center)
In the majority of species individual flowers have both pistils and stamens as described above. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either male or female the species is regarded as dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is considered monoecious.


Anatomy of Oxalis acetosella flower. 1 - petal, 2 - sepal, 3 - anther, 4 - stigma, 5 - ovary, 6 - ovary, 7 - ovule.
Additional discussions on floral modifications from the basic plan are presented in the articles on each of the basic parts of the flower. In those species that have more than one flower on an axis—so-called composite flowers— the collection of flowers is termed an inflorescence; this term can also refer to the specific arrangements of flowers on a stem. In this regard, care must be exercised in considering what a ‘‘flower’’ is. In botanical terminology, a single daisy or sunflower for example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous tiny flowers (sometimes called florets). Each of these flowers may be anatomically as described above. Many flowers have a symmetry, if the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are produced - the flower is called regular or actinomorphic e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. e.g. snapdragon or most orchids.
[edit] Floral formula
A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used:
Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co3(x) = petals some multiple of three ) Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic with 6 petals)A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A∞ = many stamens)G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G1 = monocarpous)
x - to represent a "variable number"∞ - to represent "many"
A floral formula would appear something like this:
Ca5Co5A10 - ∞G1
Several additional symbols are sometimes used (see Key to Floral Formulas).
[edit] Pollination


Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits
Main article: pollination
The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction by the joining of pollen of one plant with the ovules of another (or in some cases its own ovules) in order to form seed which grows into the next generation of plants. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for adaptation to occur. As such, each flower has a specific design which best encourages the transfer of this pollen. Many flowers are dependent upon the wind to move pollen between flowers of the same species. Others rely on animals (especially insects) to accomplish this feat. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and pygmy possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis.
[edit] Attraction methods


Bee orchid mimics a female bee in order to attract a male bee pollinator
Many flowers in nature have evolved to attract animals to pollinate the flower, the movements of the pollinating agent contributing to the opportunity for genetic recombination within a dispersed plant population. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous (literally "insect-loving"). Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on their various parts that attract these animals. Birds and bees are common pollinators: both having color vision, thus opting for "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible to us or only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent. Many of their scents are pleasant to our sense of smell, but not all. Some plants, such as Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba), are pollinated by flies, so they produce a scent imitating rotting meat. Flowers pollinated by night visitors such as bats or moths are especially likely to concentrate on scent - which can attract pollinators in the dark - rather than color: most such flowers are white.
Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate.
[edit] Pollination mechanism
The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized.
Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods:
Entomophilous - flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas - arranged with equally pointed precision - of all of the flowers it visits. Many flower rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination. Others, such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination.
Anemophilous - flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them.
Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called clestigomous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers.
[edit] Flower-pollinator relationships
Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs.
This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction. The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations.
[edit] Fertilization and dispersal
Main article: biological dispersal


In this picture you can clearly see the stamens of the flower
Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also: Plant sexuality).
[edit] Evolution


Flowers in Kamakura, Japan
While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants -- and some animals -- can simply scatter out little living copies of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants, such as the modern fern, are thought to have reproduced. But plants soon began protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed...but not, yet, flowers. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo, conifers (like pines), and fir trees. The earliest fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old.[2] Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.
Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics)[3][4] show that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies[5] suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.


Various flower colors and shapes


A Syrphid fly on a Grape hyacinth
The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve other animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps.
Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains.
While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland animals and spread, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.
While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids[6], which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification.
The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.[7] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior".
Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[8]
[edit] Development
The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus. For example, in a loss of B-gene function mutant flower we get sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl (the B-function lost that is needed for petal development). In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. See also The ABC Model of Flower Development.
Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ.
[edit] Flowering transition
The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that will ensure maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in plant hormones levels and seasonable temperature and photoperiodchanges. Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals through genes such as CONSTANS and FLC ensures that flowering occurs at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds.[9] Flower formation is initiated at the ends of stems, and involves a number of different physiological and morphological changes. The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue. Once the process begins, even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower.
[edit] Uses by humans
[edit] In everyday life


Flowers are beloved for their various fragrances
In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or just be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable smell. Around the world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime:
For new births or Christenings
As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays
For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall
As brightening decorations within the home
As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts
For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving
People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from florists who depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their trade.
[edit] Symbolism


Lilies are often used to denote life or resurrection
Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.
Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the UK, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.
Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.
Daisies are a symbol of innocence.
Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keefe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art.
[edit] Edible flowers
Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable. Dandelion flowers are often made into wine. Bee Pollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey.
Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. Squash flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, honeysuckle, chicory, cornflower, Canna, and sunflower. Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as daisy and rose (you may also come across a candied pansy).
[edit] Floristry
Under ConstructionMain and related articles at: Floristry, Flower garden, Gardening, and List of flowers Flowers can also be made into tea. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with tea leaves for the added fragrance.
[edit] In the arts


Flowers are common subjects of still lifes, such as this one by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder
The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower.
Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies.
Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of flower art.
[edit] Mythology
The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.


Chinese Jade ornament with flower design, Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD), Shanghai Museum.
In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a lotus flower.[10] Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.[11] For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.[12]

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